Buying Indian Hand-Made Rugs

Editor: jaipurrugs

This guide aims to educate both the novice and seasoned collector about differing rug types, designs, and compositions in India.

Introduction

As a rug manufacturer, we are forever bombarded with questions from clients' customers about types of rugs that come from India, how to choose one, and how to care for them. The path to owning a hand-made rug is not always as simple as one might suppose; however, knowledge is the key that helps most collectors make wiser, more prudent decisions. We specialize in hand-made knotted, flat-woven, and tufted rugs made in India for clients around the world. We are pleased to bring this information to you. We would like to thank the generosity of Jacobsen Rugs in Syracuse, NY for their exhaustive efforts on their own website (www.jacobsenrugs.com) from which much of this information was adapted.

About India

India is located in South Asia. India covers an area of 1,222,243 sq mi and its capital is New Delhi. With the population of just over 1 billion is the second most populated country in the world after China. India gained its independence from The British Empire in 1947.

Rug weaving was introduced to India during the sixteenth century. Indian workshops prospered in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and were strongly influenced by Iranian designs. From 1700 onward, there was a steady decline in overall rug production and had almost stopped in India until about 1850 when rugs were produced largely for exportation. Today, most traditional rugs woven in India are based on older French and Persian designs.

The two major weaving districts in India are the areas surrounding the large city of Varanasi in east-central India and the area centered around Jaipur, southwest of Delhi. Both districts produce an incredible assortment of wool rugs in a variety of sizes and patterns. Additionally, pile-woven Aubusson and Savonnerie rugs and flat-woven tapestry-technique dhurries are woven near Varanasi. Weavers in Jaipur construct a variety of floral and geometric patterns in sizes from small mats through large carpets.

About Weaving Materials

Pile refers to the material (fiber) used for weaving rugs. Only natural fibers are used in handmade rugs. The main pile materials are wool, silk and cotton.

Wool Wool is the most frequently used pile material in handmade rugs because it is soft, durable, and easy to work with. This combination of characteristics is not found in other natural fibers. Wool comes from the coat of sheep. Moderately coarse wool is more durable than fine wool, and the sheep producing this kind of wool can usually be found in the Middle East. In general, wool from sheep grazing at high altitudes is superior. Wool from China, Australia and New Zealand is also very good. Natural wool comes in colors of white, brown, fawn, yellow and gray, which are sometimes used directly without going through a dyeing process.

Silk Silk is an expensive fiber, and therefore, it is less frequently used in handmade rugs. Silk comes from the cocoon of silkworms, which thrive on mulberry leaves. Silk originally came from China and it was then cultivated in countries such as Iran, Turkey, India and some countries of the ex-Soviet Union. The best quality silk still comes from China and an area of Iran in the south shores of the Caspian Sea. Silk has the two qualities of fineness and strength, hardly found in other natural fibers. Silk can be used alone or in combination with wool. Because of their fineness, pure silk rugs require more care. Therefore, they are generally used as decorative items and hung on walls, or if used as floor coverings, they are placed in rooms with less traffic.

About the Parts of a Rug

Warps Warps are the parallel strings stretched from loom beam to loom beam upon which rows of knots are tied. Most weavers use cotton for warp material because it is easier to weave a flat, straight rug on cotton warps.

Wefts Wefts run across the width of the rug, over and under the warp strings and between rows of knots. Wefts help hold rows of knots in place and strengthen the structure of the rug.

Knots Knots are tied by looping yarn around pairs of warps and cutting off the standing end, thus creating the pile or nap of the rug.

Edge Bindings Edge bindings are made by wrapping several warps at the edge of the rug with yarn to reinforce this part of the rug.

End Finishes End finishes hold knots and wefts from working off the rug's warp strings. Many rug types have a flat-woven kilim selvedge at both ends.

Fringes Fringes are formed by gathering and knotting together bundles of warp strings at both ends of the rug after the rug has been cut from the loom. The knots in these bundles of warp strings keep pile knots and end finishes tight at the rug's ends.

Understanding Weave and Knot Styles

Pile Weave

Pile weave or knotted weave refers to the method of weaving used in most rugs. In this technique the rug is woven by creation of knots. A short piece of yarn is tied around two neighboring warp strands creating a knot on the surface of the rug. After each row of knots is created, one or more strands of weft are passed through a complete set of warp strands. Then the knots and the weft strands are beaten with a comb securing the knots in place. Even though all pile rugs are woven with knots, different weaving groups use different types of knots (Described below). The weaving process begins at the bottom of the loom and moves upward as the horizontal rows of knots and wefts are added. There are different methods by which knots are created. The two predominant types of knots are asymmetrical and symmetrical. There are other kinds of knots as well such as Jufti and Tibetan. However, they are not as frequently used.

Knot Density Knot density refers to the number of knots per square inch or square decimeter in a handmade rug. Knot density is measured in the imperial system in square inch and in the metric system in square decimeter. Every decimeter is equal to 10 centimeters and approximately 4 inches. Knot density is measured by counting the number of knots per linear inch or decimeter along the warp and weft (visible on the backside of the rug) and multiplying the two numbers. Since usually the two numbers are usually the same, one number can simply be squared. Knot density can be a factor in the value of a rug, but this is not always true.

In the Varanasi area of India, rugs are graded using two numbers, like "5/40," "9/60," or "12/60." The first number represents the knots in 9/10 of an inch of the rug's width. The second number represents the knots in 4 1/2 inches of the rug's length. 0.9" x 4.5" equals 4.05", almost four square inches, so an easy conversion is to multiply the two numbers together and divide by 4 (sq. in.) to get the approximate weave in knots per sq. in. For example, with a "9/60" quality rug, 9 X 60=540 and 540/4=135 knots per sq. in. Note that most rugs from India have strongly offset warps, so you will only see one element of the knot on the back of the rug.

China uses a completely different nomenclature, with "line counts" like "70 line," "90 line," or "120 line." The line count equals the number of knots in a linear foot measured across the width of the rug. Thus a "90 line" rug has 90 knots per linear foot across its width. A "90 line" Chinese rug has about 56 knots per sq. in.; a "SINO-PERSIAN" (a Chinese rug in Persian design) in "160 line" quality has about 177 knots per sq. in.; a "240 line" rug has about 400 knots per sq. in. Chinese rugs have strongly offset warps, so you will only see one element of the knot on the back of the rug.

Knot density is a factor, among many other factors, in the value of workshop rugs or in other words city rugs. Since workshops have more sophisticated tools (though of varying degrees of sophistication) and follow cartoons (drawings on squared paper) for their designs, precision becomes important.

Knot density, although irrelevant in durability of the rug, becomes important for creating intricate curvilinear designs because the higher the knot density, the more detailed the design can be. Workshop rugs can have a knot density of between 100 to over 1000 knots per square inch. Rugs of over 1000 knots per square inch are very rare and most likely very expensive. These rugs are generally pure silk with silk foundation because with silk foundation more knots can be tied. With cotton or wool because the strands are thicker, it would be difficult to tie this many knots in one square inch.

All handmade rugs are functional and exceptional works of art created with great patience. Every single knot is tied by hand. A rug can consist of 25 to over 1,000 knots per square inch. A skillful weaver is able to tie a knot in about ten seconds, meaning 6 knots per minute or 360 knots per hour. That means it would take a skillful weaver 6,480 hours to weave a 9x12-foot rug with a density of 150 knots per square inch. If we divide this number by 8-hour working days, that means it would take one weaver 810 days (approximately two and a half years) to weave such a rug. A rug as large as a 9x12 is usually woven by two or three weavers, so the above time can be reduced by half or third. Imagine if the knot density is even higher! Handmade rugs are functional and exceptional works of art created with great patience.

Asymmetrical (Persian or Senneh) Knot The asymmetrical knot is used in Iran, India, Turkey, Egypt and China. To form this knot, yarn is wrapped around one warp strand and then passed under the neighboring warp strand and brought back to the surface. With this type of knot a finer weave can be created.

Symmetrical (Turkish or Ghiorde) Knot The symmetrical knot is used in Turkey, the Caucasus and Iran by Turkish and Kurdish tribes. It is also used in some European rugs. To form this knot, yarn is passed over two neighboring warp strands. Each end of the yarn is then wrapped behind one warp and brought back to the surface in the middle of the two warps.

Jufti Knot The jufti knot can be seen in rugs of Khorasan, Iran. This knot can be either symmetrical or asymmetrical. The knot is usually tied over four warps making the weaving process faster.

Tibetan Knot In Tibet, a distinctive rug-weaving technique is used. A temporary rod which establishes the length of pile is put in front of the warp . A continuous yarn is looped around two warps and then once around the rod. When a row of loops is finished, then the loops are cut to construct the knots.

Flat Weave

Flat weave refers to a technique of weaving where no knots are used in the weave. The warp strands are used as the foundation and the weft stands are used as both part of the foundation and in creating the patterns. The weft strands are simply passed (woven) through the warp strands. Some examples of this weaving method can be seen in Dhurries, Kilims, Soumaks and Brocades. These weavings are called flat weaves since no knots are used in the weaving process and their surface looks flat.

Kilim Weave Kilim rugs are the most well-known group of flat-woven rugs. They take less time to weave; as a result, they are generally less expensive than pile (knotted) rugs. However, in the recent years they have become more popular and their prices have relatively increased. The main difference between kilims and pile rugs is that in kilims the weft strands create the colorful patterns. No rows of knots are added. The weft strands, unlike a pile rug, are discontinuous. They do not pass through the warp strands from selvage to selvage (edge to edge). The weft strands are passed through a few warp strands; then, they loop back around when they reach a section where a new color weft is needed.

Soumak Weave Soumak weaving is another method of flat weaving. This rug weaving technique is used by the Caucasian weaving group. They have been using this unique method of flat weaving for generations. The Soumak technique refers to a method of flat weaving where the wefts are passed over two or four warps and back under one or two warps.

Brocade Weave Brocading is also a form of flat weaving. Brocades already have a foundation (a warp and a weft). The foundation is patterned by additional colored weft strands, which can be continuous or discontinuous, and are passed through the already existing warp and weft strands.

Hand Tufted

A hand-tufted rug is created without tying knots into the foundation, but rather by pushing wool or arcylic yarn through a primary backing, creating a 'tuft'. Then, using a latex glue to hold the 'tufts' in place, a rugmaker will apply a secondary foundation, or 'scrim', which is then covered by a third and final cloth backing to protect your floor. The final step involves shearing the tops of the looped tufts to create the pile. The height of the pile is determined by how much yarn is cut off, and how far the initial loop was pushed up.

Hand-tufted rug makers use a tool called a 'tufting gun' which holds the yarn, to push through the primary backing which is stretched in place on a frame. This method of rug making is less time consuming than hand-tying each knot, but still requires a high level of craftsmanship to efficiently and accurately portray the intricate designs. The design is determined by transferring a pattern onto the primary foundation, this acts as a template showing the craftsman where to push through each colored tuft. Hand-tufted rugs can be made faster than hand-knotted rugs, therefore they are generally less expensive than their hand-knotted counterparts. The tufting method creates a highly durable and beautifully accurate handmade rug that will weather foot traffic for years to come.

Caring for a Rug

A genuine hand-knotted Oriental rug will last a very long time if you take a few precautions to protect it from premature wear and the most common kinds of damage. Common problems include water damage, moth damage, dog chews and cat scratching, pet stains, vacuum cleaner damage, chemical damage, sun damage, and uneven wear.

Water Damage Most varieties of Oriental rugs have wool pile, but many have cotton warp and weft (the warp is the foundation upon which knots are tied to create the pile; the weft runs over and under warp strings between rows of knots to strengthen the rug from side to side). This cotton foundation can be weakened, and sometimes actually rotted, if the rug is wetted repeatedly and not properly dried. A common cause of such damage occurs when potted plants are placed directly on a rug. The plant is watered regularly, the pot leaks, and the rug under the pot stays permanently damp. Within two or three weeks the foundation of the rug can become so weak that chunks can be torn from the affected area by hand. If you use planters near a rug, try to place them on a slim legged stool, or a caster-based support that lets you see under the pot and allows for ventilation. After watering the plant check to be sure the rug under it is completely dry. Another form of water damage can affect rugs used in a basement or other area below grade level. If the basement floods the potential for damage is obvious. The rug must be removed quickly, properly cleaned, and allowed to dry completely. A more insidious form of damage can be caused by using a rug over a damp floor (as is often the case if the floor is cement). Even though the floor is not noticeably wet to the touch, there can be enough moisture to allow microorganisms to flourish in the material of the warp and weft and to degrade the strength of the rug's foundation.

A rug damaged in this way will often feel peculiarly stiff when manipulated. The rug will sometimes be so stiff it will be difficult to roll, and if you listen carefully to the back of the carpet when it is creased or folded, you can often hear the cracks and popping noises made by breaking warp and weft fibers. Back to top

Moth Damage Flying clothes moths do not eat your rugs, but the females do lay hundreds of eggs each, and the eggs hatch into larvae that consume wool, fur, feather, and silk fibers. Moths and their larvae thrive in dark, undisturbed areas where a rug gets little traffic and is not often vacuumed. A bad infestation sometimes leaves a cobweb-like veil in the area of the damage, along with fine, sand-like debris. An infestation often involves more than one rug, and can spread to (or from) woolens or furs hanging in a closet or sweaters stored in a drawer. A rug damaged by moths is not difficult to repair, but reweaving a large area of the rug can be expensive.

The life cycle of the clothes moth (Not to scale)

To identify the presence of moths, look for one or more of these:

• flying moths -- the common clothing moth (tineola bisselliella) is the villain. It's small, 3/8" long or less, and is usually silvery tan or soft brown in color. This moth flies slowly but with a rapid flutter of small wings. If you try to snatch one out of the air, the clothes moth folds its wings and drops to the floor. • bare spots in the pile -- often moth larvae will prefer the taste of one color yarn over another, and so the bare spots may involve some specific colors but not others. • webs -- white gossamer filaments covering a patch of the rug's pile (often only present with a bad infestation). • cocoons -- 1/8" diameter x 1/2" long slightly fuzzy cylinders usually the same color as the rug's pile (larvae camouflage their cocoons to blend in with the color of the wool that surrounds them). • larvae in the pile -- slender, white, worm-like moth larvae about 3/8" long can sometimes be seen just after hatching, before they've constructed cocoons. It is the larvae that actually eat the wool. • sand-like particles down in the pile of the rug -- this material, often tan or brown in color, regular in size, and granular in look, is the excretion of the larvae. • broken/loose plies -- where the larvae have chewed through yarn overcastings or bindings.

To prevent moth damage:

• Vacuum the entire face of the rug weekly if possible. At least several times a year, vacuum the back side of the rug and the pad and floor underneath. If the rug is too large to handle, flip the edges over, and vacuum at least one to two feet in along the borders on the back side of the rug. The corresponding areas on the pad and floor should also be vacuumed. • Be aware that moth balls, flakes, or crystals (naphthalene or paradichlorobenzene) are ineffective in moth control for rugs. These materials act only as a minor repellent to moths. They do not kill moth larvae, and the naphthalene odor can be unpleasant and difficult to remove from the rug. Cedar scent is useless as a prevention for moth damage. • Any place the vacuum cannot reach, such as areas of the rug under furniture, or a rug hung on the wall, can be sprayed with a household, non-staining insecticide made for the purpose. Most of these products contain pyrethrins (a class of insecticide originally extracted from the flower heads of chrysanthemums) among the active ingredients. Although poisonous to many varieties of insects, pyrethrins break down quickly after application and are considered safe for use in the home. BE CAREFUL IN CHOOSING AND APPLYING ANY INSECTICIDE. Choose a product designed for the intended use and follow directions for application, storage, and disposal carefully.

Carpet Beetle Damage Similar in appearance to moth damage, but caused by the larvae of a small (1/8" long), dark brown or brown-black insect. Beetle larvae damage is usually not as severe, nor as messy as moth damage. Strategies to prevent or treat moth damage will be effective against carpet beetles as well. Back to top

Dog Chews Puppies tend to chew rugs because of tooth growth. The best way to prevent chew damage is to control the puppy by keeping it away from the rug. Sometimes sprinkling an ounce of moth flakes under the rug along the edges will help the dog keep his distance from the rug. Back to top

Cat Scratchings Cats which are not declawed can do significant damage to a rug if they habitually sharpen their claws on it. As with dog chews, the best prevention is to control the cat's activities. Sometimes a squirt gun (squirt the cat when it starts to scratch the rug) can be used to condition the cat to avoid the rug. Back to top

Vacuum Cleaner Damage In almost all instances, regular vacuuming of an Oriental rug with an electric vacuum cleaner is good for the rug--a dirty rug wears prematurely, and regular vacuuming helps prevent dirt on the surface of the rug from filtering down into the pile where it can accumulate and cause increased wear. Still, be careful with a cleaner equipped with a power brush or "beater bar"; these powered brushes in the vacuum head help the vacuum do a good job on machine-made carpeting, but they cause a raking effect on the top layer of an Oriental rug's pile if used too strenuously. If your vacuum cleaner has a power brush, use it only occasionally and lightly on your Oriental rug. For routine cleaning, use just the plain vacuum nozzle. This is especially important for fringes; try not to run an upright vacuum or a power brush attachment over fringes. The brush shreds the fringes and causes rapid wear. Frequently fringes get caught and chewed up by the rotating mechanism of the brush. Back to top

Chemical Damage An old trick of some rug cleaners is to bleach the cotton fringe of a rug snowy white before returning the rug to the customer (on the theory that if the fringe looks nice and clean, the whole rug looks cleaner). Unfortunately, chlorine based bleach weakens natural fiber over time. We have seen many rugs with "dead fringe"--fringe so weakened by repeated bleachings that a tug on the fringe will tear away small bits. If you must have snowy white fringe, use a dilute bleach solution, and be sure to rinse the fringe very thoroughly. Back to top

Sun Damage Most rug dyes are quite resistant to sun fading or bleaching. Still, ultraviolet rays are a powerful force of Nature, and a rug will likely fade over time if used for years in a very sunny area. Consider sheer drapes to block some of the direct sunlight, and try to turn the rug end-for-end once a year to even out possible color changes. Back to top

Uneven Wear A rug should be turned end-for-end once every year or two to even out wear and color change. Try not to use a rug on a very uneven floor. An area of the floor that is raised (a loose floorboard, a transition strip from one flooring material to another, etc.) causes the part of the rug that covers it to wear much more rapidly than the rest of the rug. Back to top

To Move a Rug When you move a big rug to adjust its position, there is a better way than just to pull with brute force on the fringe or edge. A simple trick is to rapidly wave the edge of the rug up and down a foot or two close to the floor while pulling. This ripple effect sends a cushion of air under the rug, making it very easy to move.

To Lay a Rug Flat If a rug has been folded for shipping, there may be wrinkles or creases when you lay it down. To flatten them out, first determine which way the nap lays (rub your hand across the pile in the direction of the fringe: the pile will feel smooth one way and will roughen up when rubbed in the opposite direction). Stand at the end of the rug with the nap running toward you. Roll the rug up from this end as tight as you can, then slowly unroll and smooth it down along the way. Persistent wrinkles in the same spot can be pressed from the face of the rug using a steam iron on "wool" setting (be sure to iron the pile in its original direction). Persistent wrinkles should be attended to, as premature wear along the ridges made by the wrinkles can result. Some rugs have wrinkles "built in" as the rug is woven--try not to buy one of these! Back to top

Rug Pads Pads under Oriental rugs can prevent sliding, prolong the life of the rug by cushioning the impact between shoe sole and hard floor surfaces, and provide comfort under foot. To determine if you need a pad, the rule of thumb is: a heavy, thick rug does not necessarily need one, whereas a thin, soft rug does, as does an older rug or a rug that has been rewoven or patched or which has a weakened foundation. While a pad can extend the life of any rug, whether or not to use a pad under a new rug is often a personal decision based upon your preference for the feel of the carpet underfoot. A pad should be about an inch smaller than the rug all the way around (not counting the fringe) so that the pad will not show beneath the rug.

Pads can be made of materials like rubber, felt, polyester, or one of a number of synthetic foams. For a number of years we have preferred pads for larger rugs made of a polyester felt about 3/8" thick. This material is quite dense and is mechanically strong. We have seen rubber pads crack and crumble around the edges with time, and occasionally rubber pads will become gummy and stick to an older floor finish or even to the back of the rug. Many of the synthetic urethane foam pads seem too soft and lightweight to provide much support to the rug. Back to top

Curled Corners and Curled Edges Because of the way it is woven, a rug may have corners and/or edges that tend to curl under. Straighten them out when you lay the rug down. If the edges curl badly, the rug may need the attention of a good rug repair person. Using a rug with badly curled-under edges or corners causes unnatural wear patterns that can damage the rug and be difficult to repair properly. See a badly curled edge.. Back to top

Sizing or Blocking a Rug When a rug is out of square or has built-in wrinkles, sizing or blocking may help. A rug is sized by turning it over, making it as square and flat as possible, and fastening it down along the edges (we use a staple hammer). A mixture of sizing and water is sprinkled over the back of the rug, and the rug is allowed to dry. The moisture in the sizing helps equalize tension in the foundation of the rug, and the sizing helps the rug hold its square, flat shape. Note that even a good quality rug is rarely perfectly rectilinear. When blocking a rug the choice is sometimes between getting it flat or making it square--from the standpoint of what's good for the rug, it is almost always better to make the rug flat than to make it perfectly rectilinear.

Used with care and when appropriate, sizing makes a rug more attractive and usable. Used incorrectly, blocking can distort or even damage a rug. Over-aggressive blocking will not remedy the problems of a badly crooked or poorly woven rug. Don't try this at home! Sizing is definitely a process best handled by an experienced dealer or rug repair person.

Storage When a rug is to be stored for more than a few months it should be cleaned, sprayed with insecticide, and wrapped in protective plastic or a tough synthetic paper like "Tyvek"® building paper. Don't use newspaper or common brown wrapping paper. These materials are not chemically stable (they are usually quite acidic), and do not provide the protection from insects or moisture the stored rug needs. Make sure the rug is completely dry. Think twice about using moth balls or flakes--these materials have little repellent effect, and the odor they impart to the rug can be difficult to remove. Cedar scent is useless in moth control. Store the rug in a clean, dry place out of the reach of squirrels or other rodents. Periodic inspection of the rug is strongly recommended.

Summary You should vacuum your rug often--both front and back sides, and turn it end-for-end once in a while. Although many kinds of damage can be repaired, prevention is much easier (and cheaper) than repair, so avoid placing potted plants on the rug, and keep an eye on your pets. Inspect the entire rug periodically for signs of wear or damage. Have your rug cleaned only when it really is dirty. When you see something wrong with your rug that is beyond your ability to rectify, don't hesitate to call a reputable Oriental rug dealer for advice. With just a bit of care your Oriental rug will provide many years of utility and pride of ownership.

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